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Calcium-rich supernovae are a rare type of very fast supernova with unusually strong calcium lines in their spectra. [65] [66] Models suggest they occur when material is accreted from a helium-rich companion rather than a hydrogen-rich star. Because of helium lines in their spectra, they can resemble type Ib supernovae, but are thought to have very different progenitors. [67] Type II [ edit ] Light curves are used to classify type II-P and type II-L supernovae. [61] [68] Either type of supernova can be so bright as to briefly outshine an entire galaxy. But Type II supernovas are particularly interesting because they release not only light but also enormous numbers of neutrinos. In fact, the emission of neutrinos can start a little bit ahead of the explosion itself, explains Kate Scholberg, an astronomer at Duke University. Astronomers use Type Ia supernovas as "standard candles" to measure cosmic distances because all are thought to blaze with equal brightness at their peaks. More recently, astronomers have been getting excited about a newly discovered supernova in the Pinwheel Galaxy. Designated SN 2023ixf and located some 21 million light-years from Earth the new supernova is attracting the attention of both professional and amateur astronomers worldwide who are turning their telescopes and cameras toward the spot to observe this somewhat rare phenomenon. Additional resources

High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate Hubble diagrams and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift. [48] [49] Low redshift observations also anchor the low-distance end of the Hubble curve, which is a plot of distance versus redshift for visible galaxies. [50] [51]

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Eventually, the core gets immensely dense, to the point where it can no longer withstand its own gravitational force. This results in a core collapse, paving the way for a catastrophic and violent explosion, known as a supernova.Think about how massive our sun is, in comparison to its planets, and yet its mass is nowhere near a supermassive star that could end in a supernova. As survey programmes rapidly increase the number of detected supernovae, collated collections of observations (light decay curves, astrometry, pre-supernova observations, spectroscopy) have been assembled. The Pantheon data set, assembled in 2018, detailed 1048 supernovae. [52] In 2021, this data set was expanded to 1701 light curves for 1550 supernovae taken from 18 different surveys, a 50% increase in under 3 years. [53] Naming convention [ edit ] Multi-wavelength X-ray, infrared, and optical compilation image of Kepler's supernova remnant, SN 1604 A supernova is the explosion of a massive star. There are many different types of supernovae, but they can be broadly separated into two main types: thermonuclear runaway or core-collapse. This first type happens in binary star systems where at least one star is a white dwarf, and they're typically called Type Ia SNe. The second type happens when stars with masses greater than 8 times the mass of our sun collapse in on themselves and explode. There are many different subtypes of each of these SNe, each classified by the elements seen in their spectra. What happens after a supernova? The IceCube Laboratory at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica is the first gigaton neutrino detector ever built. The first type of supernova is associated with binary star systems. Binary stars are two stars that orbit the same point, or center of mass. When one of the stars—a white dwarf(a highly dense star not much bigger than our sun)—steals matter from its companion star as it orbits the axis, it begins to accumulate enormous amounts of matter. This causes the star to eventually explode, resulting in a supernova. Supernova of a binary star(Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons)

The supernovae of type II can also be sub-divided based on their spectra. While most type II supernovae show very broad emission lines which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of kilometres per second, some, such as SN 2005gl, have relatively narrow features in their spectra. These are called type IIn, where the "n" stands for "narrow". [61] Supernovae can be brighter than an entire galaxy. One single supernova can easily outshine an entire galaxy of stars in its release of a single burst of energy. In a short period of time, it mightgenerate more energy than what our sunmight generate in its entire 10 billion-year lifespan. Supernovae have shown scientists that we live in an expanding universe (by observing the redshift), one that is growing at an ever-increasing rate. Astronomers have concluded that supernovae play a vital role in distributing the elements produced in their cores throughout the universe. The table below lists the known reasons for core collapse in massive stars, the types of stars in which they occur, their associated supernova type, and the remnant produced. The metallicity is the proportion of elements other than hydrogen or helium, as compared to the Sun. The initial mass is the mass of the star prior to the supernova event, given in multiples of the Sun's mass, although the mass at the time of the supernova may be much lower. [100]The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence, and it expands to form a red giant. The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion. At this point, it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. [84] Eventually, the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass. The exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the catastrophic event remain unclear. [85] A version of the periodic table indicating the origins – including stellar nucleosynthesis of the elements. (Photo Credit: Cmglee/Wikimedia Commons)

Scientists have described two distinct types of supernovas. In a Type I supernova, a white dwarf star pulls material off a companion star until a runaway nuclear reaction ignites; the white dwarf is blown apart, sending debris hurtling through space. Kepler’s was a Type I. In a Type II supernova, sometimes called a core-collapse supernova, a star exhausts its nuclear fuel supply and collapses under its own gravity; the collapse then “bounces,” triggering an explosion.

Recent studies have found that supernovas vibrate like giant speakers and emit an audible hum before exploding.

Toward the end of the 20th century, astronomers increasingly turned to computer-controlled telescopes and CCDs for hunting supernovae. While such systems are popular with amateurs, there are also professional installations such as the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope. [43] The Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS) project uses a network of neutrino detectors to give early warning of a supernova in the Milky Way galaxy. [44] [45] Neutrinos are particles that are produced in great quantities by a supernova, and they are not significantly absorbed by the interstellar gas and dust of the galactic disk. [46] "A star set to explode", the SBW1 nebula surrounds a massive blue supergiant in the Carina Nebula. That’s what the German astronomer Johannes Kepler saw in 1604; skywatchers elsewhere in Europe, the Middle East and Asia saw it too. We now know it wasn’t really a new star but rather a supernova explosion—an enormous blast that happens when certain stars reach the ends of their lives. On average, a supernova will occur once every 50 years in a galaxy the size of the Milky Way, according to research by the European Space Agency. This means a star explodes every 10 seconds or so somewhere in the universe, according to the U.S. Department of Energy.This Chandra X-ray photograph shows Cassiopeia A (Cas A, for short), the youngest supernova remnant in the Milky Way. (Image credit: NASA/CXC/MIT/UMass Amherst/M.D.Stage et al.) Type I supernovas The sight of a supernova explosion might be awful and mesmerizing at the same time, as the beauty of destruction is not alwayseuphoric, yet these humbling events are the celestial distributors of seeds, the explosive pillars of creation. Footage of a distressed woman on a motorbike between two men and another man being held and marched by two men Type IIn supernovae are characterised by additional narrow spectral lines produced in a dense shell of circumstellar material. Their light curves are generally very broad and extended, occasionally also extremely luminous and referred to as a superluminous supernova. These light curves are produced by the highly efficient conversion of kinetic energy of the ejecta into electromagnetic radiation by interaction with the dense shell of material. This only occurs when the material is sufficiently dense and compact, indicating that it has been produced by the progenitor star itself only shortly before the supernova occurs. [155] [156] Type Ib and Ic supernovas also undergo core collapse just as Type II supernovas do, but they have lost most of their outer hydrogen layer. In 2014, scientists detected the faint, hard-to-locate companion star to a Type Ib supernova. The search consumed two decades, as the companion star shone much fainter than the bright supernova.